Acadia Baptist

Acadia Baptist located in Eunice, Louisiana was not an Indian boarding school as the other seven I have researched were.  Acadia was a Christian boarding school sponsored by the Louisiana Baptist Convention. Even so, it made a clear division between non-Indian and Indian students in its various yearbook publications and campus clubs, thus Indian identification of students was inherent in the school’s history.  What stands out about the presence of Indians at the school was that during the time of attendance of many Indian students in the 1940’s-1950’s, Indians were prohibited from attending most area schools, both at the high school and college/university level.  Acadia Baptist Academy, as it was formerly known, was founded in 1917 and closed its doors in 1973.  It currently lives on as the Acadian Baptist Center, which is used as a gathering place for area community members.  The school has an active alumni association.

Bacone College

Bacone College (Muskogee, Oklahoma), is the third oldest of the eight boarding schools studied for the purposes of this book.  A mere year separates the founding of each of these three.  It was founded in 1880, in what is now Oklahoma, and has served various ages and levels of students during the course of its history.  Its high school division was shut down in the latter part of the 1950’s and it eventually grew from a junior college to a four-year degree granting institution by the year 2000.  While Bacone may not hold Haskell’s moniker as “the most recognizable name in Indian Country”, it would surely be in the top three names along with Carlisle.  The school has held an historical relationship with the American Baptist denomination throughout its history.  Like Haskell, it is difficult to find an Indian family who does not have a relative or know someone who attended the school.  Bacone is currently comprised of Indians from numerous tribes across the U.S. who account for 65% of the school’s enrollment.  The remainder of the student body comes from divergent racial and ethnic backgrounds from both the U.S. and abroad.

Carlisle Industrial School

Carlisle Industrial School is the “grandfather” of the Indian Boarding Schools and its history has been researched on a larger scale basis than any Indian boarding school in North America.  Founded in 1879 by Richard Henry Pratt and funded by the federal government, the school would become a model for all the Indian boarding schools until its closure in 1918.

Cherokee Boarding School

Cherokee Boarding School (1883-1954), was begun by the Society of Friends (Quakers) who contracted with the federal government to fund the program. The school was located on the Qualla Boundary (Eastern Band of Cherokee Indian Reservation) at Cherokee, North Carolina.

Chilocco Indian School

Chilocco Indian School (Chilocco, Oklahoma), was founded in 1884 by the federal government and lasted nearly 100 years.  It was the first vocational training school in Oklahoma and has an active Alumni Association which is currently working towards restoring the campus. Upon closure of the school in 1980, the Council of Confederated Chilocco Tribes which includes the Kaw Nation, Otoe-Missouria Tribe, Pawnee Nation, Ponca Nation, and Tonkawa Tribe were deeded Chilocco lands to be held by the tribes in federal trust.  Some of these tribes have now built casinos on lands adjacent to the main school campus.  

Choctaw Central High School

Choctaw Central High School opened in 1963 on the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians Pearl River reservation lands near Philadelphia, Mississippi. The school is funded by the Bureau of Indian Education/Bureau of Indian Affairs and previously held numerous boarding school students, though the population of such students has more recently declined. Current students must be enrolled members of U.S. federally recognized tribes.

Hampton Institute

Hampton Institute (formerly Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute) was created by the American Missionary Association in 1868 as a training school for Black students. From 1878-1923, a division was created for American Indians. This Indian education program was used as a model for the establishment of Carlisle Institute. Located in Hampton, Virginia, the school is now well known as Hampton University. HU is recognized as a premier HBCU today. The majority of current students are of Black ancestry and come from U.S. states and countries throughout the world.

Haskell Institute

Haskell Institute in Lawrence, Kansas opened its doors to elementary aged students (up to grade eight) in 1884 after the enactment of Congressional legislation calling for the establishment of industrial training schools for Indians. The school added high school classes in 1894 and some college and vocational classes in 1927. The high school division eventually shifted to post-graduate vocational classes and the last high school class graduated in 1965. Haskell Junior College was established in 1970 and this evolution of higher education became Haskell Indian Nations University in 1993. The school is funded by the Bureau of Indian Education/Bureau of Indian Affairs. Current students must be enrolled members of U.S. federally recognized tribes.

Abenaki tribal headquarters are located at Swanton, Vermont in the United States and at the Odanak and Wolinak communities in Quebec, Canada.  The Quebec Abenaki have two First Nation reserves recognized by Canada’s federal government with a combined band population of just under 1,000. The Abenaki Nation of Mississiquoi (St. Francis/Sokoki Band) headquartered in Vermont is a state recognized tribe currently pursuing federal recognition.  Their enrolled population stands at 2,500.  Abenaki attendance at the boarding schools is complex as there are students listed as Abenaki from Iroquois Confederacy tribes in New York as well as Abenaki from Canada.  More study is needed on the exact tribal lines associated with the schools.

The Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas has the oldest reservation in the State located on approximately 10,200 acres in the Big Thicket of Deep East Texas. The Tribe is a fully functioning sovereign government with a full array of health and human services, including law enforcement and emergency services. There are more than 1,200 members, about half of whom live on the reservation. The tribe was terminated by the federal government from 1954-1987, but was the only terminated tribe which had a provision in their termination legislation which allowed for them to continue attending Indian boarding schools. (from tribal website)

The Mattaponi Indian Reservation was established in 1658 in what is now King William County, Virginia and is recognized by the State. Today, seventy-five tribal members out of a population of 450 live on the reservation consisting of 150 acres.

The Aquinnah Wampanoag are situated on 477 acres of their ancestral lands, much of it set aside for common use and benefit. Land and resource management strategies rely on sustainable practices which are shared with other towns and conservation groups on the island. Traditional arts like beadwork, basket making, and pottery continue to be taught. Celebrations like Cranberry Day and The Legends of Moshup Pageant are held annually. The tribe has developed 27 units of affordable housing for families and elders. It now also owns and operates several businesses, including three stores and a shellfish hatchery. The tribe continues to be self-governing and is taking great strides toward economic self-sufficiency. An active language program is engaging tribal members. The tribe was federally recognized in 1987. (from tribal website)

The Chickahominy Tribe is located in Charles County, Virginia with an enrolled tribal population of around nine hundred. The majority of tribal residences are concentrated around the Chickahominy Tribal Center and Samaria Indian Baptist Church. The tribe has one of the largest populations of boarding school attendees of any of the once “non-federal” tribes who attended the schools. Official state recognition came to the tribe in 1983 and federal recognition in 2018.

The CIED are situated in New Kent County, Virginia with an enrolled tribal population of under 200 individuals. Official state recognition came to the tribe in 1983 and federal recognition in 2018.

The Euchee/Yuchi tribe is headquartered at Sapulpa, Oklahoma in the Northeastern part of the state. There are currently 1,500 community members and the community social and cultural life is centered around three ceremonial grounds and three historic Indian churches. The Bureau of Indian Affair’s Office of Federal Acknowledgement declined to federally recognize the tribe in 2000. They maintain active tribal language programs and have the highest number of boarding school attendees amongst any “non-federal” tribes.

The Haliwa-Saponi Indian people number 3,800 enrolled members and are descendants of the Saponi (or Sapona), Nansemond, Tuscarora, and some other regional tribes. They are located in Hollister, North Carolina and are the proud stewards of the Haliwa-Saponi Tribal School, the only fully accredited tribal school in the nation administered by a “non-federal” tribe. The Haliwa-Saponi were state recognized in 1965 and will be celebrating their 55th annual cultural gathering in 2020. They maintain an active tribal language program.

The United Houma Nation is headquartered at Golden Meadow, Louisiana and their tribal service area encompasses six adjacent Louisiana Parishes. The tribe first pursued school integration in 1917 and pursued federal acknowledgement as early as the 1920’s. The Houma were involved in the Chicago Indian Conference (Soltax) in 1961 and were formally recognized by the State of Louisiana in 1984. There are currently 17,000 tribal enrolled tribal members. The tribe has an active tribal language program and a large number of fluent speakers of the Houma language which is a hybrid vernacular of French and Muskogean origin.

The Kansas Muncie are a community of Indian families who are currently seeking federal recognition. They once possessed a reservation near Leavenworth, Kansas, but were effectively removed from recognition by the federal government in 1900. Despite this, they have maintained community cohesion against great odds and are now petitioning once again for federal recognition of their people. They maintain their traditional tribal cemetery and are proud of the extensive military service of their tribal members.

The Lumbee were recognized by the State of North Carolina in 1885 and have been petitioning for full recognition since 1888, making them the longest petitioning tribe in the country. In 1956 they were granted federal recognition without services and so they have continued to the present day in seeking full status. The Lumbee were also the first “non-federal” tribe to attend Indian boarding schools when members of the tribe were enrolled at Carlisle in the late 1800’s. Tribal headquarters is located in Robeson County, North Carolina and the tribe currently has 50,000 enrolled members.

The Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe, also known as the People of the First Light, has inhabited present day Massachusetts and Eastern Rhode Island for more than 12,000 years. After an arduous process lasting more than three decades, the Mashpee Wampanoag were re-acknowledged as a federally recognized tribe in 2007. In 2015, the federal government declared 150 acres of land in Mashpee and 170 acres of land in Taunton as the Tribe’s initial reservation, on which the Tribe can exercise its full tribal sovereignty rights. The Mashpee tribe currently has approximately 2,600 enrolled citizens. (from tribal website)

The Monacan Nation is composed of 1,700 tribal members with their tribal offices and museum being located on Bear Mountain in Amherst County, Virginia. They were the first Virginia tribe to attend an Indian Boarding School and were federally-recognized in 2018.

The MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians became state-recognized in 1979. Tribal reservation lands and ten small settlements constitute the majority of residences for the 3,600 member tribe. Tribal members are situated in Mobile and Washington counties between the small southwestern Alabama communities of McIntosh, Mt. Vernon and Citronelle. The name “MOWA Choctaw Indians” is used to identify the Indians in this area who are descended from several Indian Tribes: Choctaw, Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, and Apache. The MOWA Choctaw are the second longest petitioning tribe in the nation, having begun their pursuit of federal recognition in 1907. The tribe provides a number of community services to tribal members including housing, utility assistance programs and more. The final completely fluent speaker of their Alabama Sixtowns Choctaw dialect passed on in 1984. Tribal language classes have been on-going since 1965 and area schools have active Indian education programs in place.

The Nanticoke Indian Association was recognized by the State of Delaware in 1922. They are located near Millsboro where they have a community center and tribal museum. They are closely tied to two other Nanticoke/Lenape communities in Delaware and New Jersey (Lenape Indian Tribe of Delaware/Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians of New Jersey). Their tribal enrollment is around 1,000. They maintain an active tribal language program.

The Narragansett Tribe was incorporated in 1934. In 1975, the Tribe filed a land claim suit against the State of Rhode Island and several landowners for the return of approximately 3,200 acres of undeveloped reservation lands. They received 1,800 acres. The Tribe received federal recognition in 1983. The Narragansett Tribe maintains active cultural, social, environmental and economic development initiatives for its 2,400 tribal members.

The Passamaquoddy Tribe, having two locations, is represented by the Joint Tribal Council which consists of the individual Tribal Councils of Indian Township, in Princeton, and at the the Pleasant Point Reservation (Sipayik) in Perry, Maine. A total of 3,369 tribal members are listed on the tribal census rolls with 1,364 on the Indian Township census and 2,005 listed on Pleasant Point census. The provides many services to its membership and was federally recognized in 1974. (from tribal website)

The Mashantucket Pequots are a native Algonquin people who endured centuries of conflict, survival, and continuity on and around North America’s oldest Indian reservation (Est. 1666) located in southeastern Connecticut. In 1637, the Pequots became the first native people to survive a genocidal massacre at the hands of European immigrants, in what would become the continental United States. Pequot history is an unprecedented story of redemption and restoration, which is featured at the Tribe’s world-class Mashantucket Pequot Museum & Research Center. The tribe was federally recognized in 1983 and has approximately 800 enrolled members. (from tribal website)

The Penobscot Nation has enrolled members on both the American and Canadian sides of the international boundary line. Their main settlement in the United States is Indian Island. The tribe, like the Passamaquoddy, was federally recognized in 1974. They have approximately 2,400 tribal members and offer both a language program and museum, as well as many social service and quality of life programs for their tribal members.

Like the Mattaponi, the Pamunkey Indian Reservation was created in 1658 and today the tribal population of around 200 has maintained 1,200 acres of the original land base. They operate a tribal museum on their reservation in King William County, Virginia. They were federally recognized in 2016.

The Rappahannock Tribe was prescribed over 3,000 acres by the Virginia Council in 1682 near Indian Neck. This land base was decimated and the Rappahannock have maintained their presence in the area without a communal land base until 1998, when the tribe reclaimed 119 acres of their original lands. The tribe officially organized in 1921 and began petitioning for federal rights at this time. Official state recognition was granted in 1983 and federal recognition in 2018. The current tribal population stands at just under 300 tribal members.

The Shinnecock Indian Reservation is a self-governing reservation. The reservation has a museum, shellfish hatchery, education center, cultural and community center, playground, and Presbyterian church. In 1972, the Shinnecock Native American Cultural Coalition (SNACC) was formed to establish a Native American arts and crafts program. Traditional dancing, beadwork, Native American crafts, and music are studied. The Cultural Enrichment Program is a sharing and learning process that the community has engaged in to ensure that the ideals and traditions of their ancestors are passed down through the generations. It involves sharing knowledge of food, clothing, arts, crafts, dance, ceremonies, and language. Every Labor Day Weekend since 1946, the reservation hosts a powwow, based on ceremonies beginning in 1912. (jeremynative.com) The tribe was federally recognized in 2010.

The Tunica-Biloxi Tribe has 1,226 enrolled Tunica-Biloxi tribal members interspersed throughout Louisiana, Texas, Illinois and other parts of the United States. Approximately 42 percent live either on or in close proximity to the reservation and designated tribal lands located in central Louisiana. The majority of tribal families in Louisiana reside and Avoyelles and Rapides parishes. The tribe provides many services to community members, as well as employment opportunities through their economic development initiatives for people in the surrounding area. The tribe was federally recognized in 1981. (from tribal website)

Like the Rappahannock, The Upper Mattaponi Tribe was officially organized in 1921. In 1917, the historic Sharon Indian School was built for the education of the youth of their community. Prior to this, tribal youth were educated with the nearby Pamunkey population. The school is used today as a community center and is adjacent to the tribe’s Indian View Baptist Church. The tribe was officially recognized by the State of Virginia in 1983 and by the federal government in 2018. The tribal population is under 200.